User:Arthursilva/sandbox/APG

匯集要做的

arthur (留言) 2011年7月11日 (一) 16:25 (UTC) 由於在計畫頁面的東西有點亂，暫列於此，由我曾編輯的歷史中擷取仍有問題，應予以改善者： 201006-201104

• Talk:石崇石崇
• 蘇木亞科
• Talk:染料木族
• Talk:孟康無法開新條目：
• Talk:藍染植物：加地名，如菁礐里等..

標本館的稿

保留名翻譯

保留名（英：conserved name；拉丁文：nomen conservandum，複數：nomina conservanda，簡寫：nom. cons.）是因特殊保護學名命名所產生學名。在《國際植物命名法規》較傾向於使用拉丁文，nomen conservandum，但《國際動物命名法規》則傾向於使用英文conserved name。日文則使用漢字「保留名」。保留名的意涵、形成機制，動物與植物不同。

植物

在植物學裡的保留名具有下列特性： (1) A name ... ruled as legitimate and with precedence over other specified names even though it may have been illegitimate when published or lack priority ... (2) A name for which its type, orthography, or gender has been fixed by the conservation process."

In botanical nomenclature, conservation is a nomenclatural procedure governed by Art. 14 of the ICBN. Its purpose is

"to avoid disadvantageous nomenclatural changes entailed by the strict application of the rules, and especially of the principle of priority [...]" (Art. 14.1).

Conservation is possible only for names at the rank of family, genus or species.

It may effect a change in original spelling (see orthographical variant), Type (biology), or (most commonly) priority.

• Conserved spelling allows spelling usage to be preserved even if the name was published with another spelling: Euonymus (not Evonymus), Guaiacum (not Guajacum), etc. (see orthographical variant).
• Conserved types are often made when it is found that a type in fact belongs to a different taxon, or to a small group separate from the monophyletic bulk of a genus' species.
• Conservation of a name against an earlier taxonomic (heterotypic) synonym (which is termed a rejected name), ensures that these names do not force taxa to be renamed (i.e., a name rejected in favour of the conserved name could be used in a taxonomy that did not combine its taxon with the taxon of the conserved name).

Besides conservation/rejection of a name (Art. 14), the ICBN also offers the option of outright rejection of a name (Art. 56), another way of creating a nomen rejiciendum (nom. rej., rejected name) that cannot be used anymore. Rejection is possible for a name at any rank.

Effects

Conflicting conserved names are treated according to the normal rules of priority. Separate proposals (informally referred to as "superconservation" proposal) may be made to protect the latter of a conserved name that would be overtaken by another. However, conservation does not have the same consequences depending on the type of name that is conserved:

• A conserved family name is protected against all other family names based on genera encompassed by the family definition.
• A conserved genus or species name is against any homonyms, homotypic synonyms, and those specific heterotypic synonyms that are simultaneously declared nomina rejicienda (as well as their own homotypic synonyms). As such, other names may arise that require nomenclatural changes or new conservation proposals.

Procedure

1. The procedure starts by submitting a proposal to the journal Taxon (published by the IAPT). This proposal should present the case both for and against conservation of a name. Publication notifies anybody concerned that the matter is being considered and makes it possible for those interested to write in. Publication is the start of the formal procedure: it counts as referring the matter "to the appropriate Committee for study" and Rec14A.1 comes into effect. The name in question is (somewhat) protected by this Recommendation ("... authors should follow existing usage as far as possible ...").
2. After reviewing the matter, judging the merits of the case, "the appropriate Committee" makes a decision either against ("not recommended") or in favor ("recommended"). Then the matter is passed to the General Committee.
3. After reviewing the matter, mostly from a procedural angle, the General Committee makes a decision, either against ("not recommended") or in favor ("recommended"). At this point Art 14.14 comes into effect. Art 14.14 authorizes all users to indeed use that name. If this should be relevant the name can be printed in the relevant Appendix, but only if accompanied by an asterisk to indicate that although it is printed in the physical book which carries the title International Code of Botanical Nomenclature it is not de jure part of the Code.
4. The General Committee reports to the Nomenclature Section of the International Botanical Congress, stating which names (including types and spellings) it recommends for conservation. Then, by Div.III.1, the Nomenclature Section makes a decision on which names (including types, spellings) are accepted into the Code. At this stage the de facto decision is made to modify the Code.
5. The Plenary Session of that same International Botanical Congress receives the "resolution moved by the Nomenclature Section of that Congress" and makes a de jure decision to modify the Code. By long tradition this step is ceremonial in nature only.

In the course of time there have been different standards for the majority required for a decision. However, for decades the Nomenclature Section has required a 60% majority for an inclusion in the Code, and the Committees have followed this example, in 1996 adopting a 60% majority for a decision.

Zoology

For zoology, the term "conserved name", rather than nomen conservandum, is used in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, although informally both terms are used interchangeably.

In the glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (the Code for names of animals, one of several Nomenclature Codes), this definition is given:

conserved name

A name otherwise unavailable or invalid that the Commission, by the use of its plenary power, has enabled to be used as a valid name by removal of the known obstacles to such use.

This is a more generalized definition than the one for nomen protectum, which is specifically a conserved name that is either a junior synonym or homonym, and would therefore ordinarily be considered invalid.

An example of a conserved name, one that is also a nomen protectum, is the dinosaur genus name Pachycephalosaurus, which was formally described in 1943. Later, Tylosteus (which was formally described in 1872) was found to be the same genus as Pachycephalosaurus (a synonym). By the usual rules, the genus Tylosteus has precedence and would normally be the correct name. But the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) ruled that the name Pachycephalosaurus was to be given precedence and treated as the valid name, because it was in more common use and better known to scientists.

The ICZN's procedural details are different from those in botany, but the basic operating principle is the same, with petitions submitted for review by the Commission.

References

• McVaugh, R., R. Ross and F. A. Stafleu. 1968. An annotated glossary of botanical nomenclature. Utrecht, Netherlands: International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature of the International Association for Plant Taxonomy.

標本歸檔

標本的排列方式因不同的館藏有不同的方式，最常見的是採取某一分類系統排列，這對於在分類處理上有其方便性。

標本的管理

標本館的首要任務為提供標本供作研究之用，因此，如何保持一份標本儘可能的完整是標本館的重要事務。在例行的管理上，必需維持儲藏環境的合適性。這可分幾個部份：

標本館的運作

館長 館員

孟仁草

arthur (留言) 2011年7月20日 (三) 03:34 (UTC)

虎尾草屬

Chloris Sw., Prodr. 1:25. 1788. 屬名是希臘女神克洛里斯。 4種都在taiwania251頁。

孟仁草

1. Chloris barbata Sw., (Fl. Ind. Occid. 1: 200. 1797; Hsu, Fl. Taiwan 5: 462. 1978; Koyama, Grass. Jap. Neighb. Reg. 279. 1987. �s���� Pl. 163, Photo 48 Andropogon barbatum L., Mant. Pl. Att. 302. 1771, non L. 1759. Chloris inflata Link, Enum. Hort. Berol. L: 105. 1821; Senaratna Grass Sri Lanka; pl. 11. 1956. Culms tufted. Blade ca. 1.5 mm wide, surface siliceous; ligule ciliate , ca. 0.3 mm long. Inflorescence a digitate spike. Spikelets 3-flowered, ca. 3 mm long; glumes membranaceous, conspicuously 1- nerved; lower glume deltoid-lanceolate, ca. 1.2 mm long, acute; upper glume narrowly lanceolate, ca. 2.5 mm long, shortly awned; lower floret fertile; lemma ca. 2.7 mm long, chartaceous, 3-nerved, midrib extending into a long awn of 4 times their length of lemma, margins hispid, 2-toothed; palea ca. 2.2 mm long, membranaceous, with a sinus at apex, minutely ciliate, 2-keeled, upper part oblong, lower part linear; sterile lemma 2-lobed, 3-nerved, margins siliceous; anthers ca. 0.5 mm long. Caryopsis, ca. 1.6 mm long; embryo 1/2 as long as caryopsis. Tropical southeast Asia, introduced elsewhere, but some authors have considered it to be a native of tropical America. Cattle are said to be partial to this grass when it is young, but avoid it when the inflorescence matures. It has a purplish inftorescence with nearly globose sterile lemmas. NANTOU: Chitou, Kuoh 13502. CHIAYI: Chiayi, De Vol 7095*. TAINAN: Hsinhua, Wang 20080. KAOHSIUNG: Kaohsiung, Hsu 533-1. PINGTUNG: Ssuchungchi, Chang 2121.

(Hsu, 1978)Distributed in the tropics of Southeast Asia, introduced elsewhere, but some authors have considered it to be a native of tropical America. Cattle are said to be partial to this grass when it is young, but avoid it when the inflorescence matures. It has a purplish inflorescence with nearly globose sterile lemmas.

台灣虎尾草

Chloris formosana (Honda) Keng, Clav. Gram. Prin. Sinicarum 197. 1957, Hsu, Fl. Taiwan 5: 375. pl. 1396. 1978. Chloris fonnosana (Honda) Keng, Clav. Gram. Prin, Sinicarum 197.1957, Fl. Ill. PI. Prim. Sinicarum Gram. 469. f. 400. 1959; Hsu in Taiwania 16: 251. 1971, Taiwan Grass. 367. pl. 78. 1975. 台灣虎尾草 (Hsu, 1978)Locally it grows mainly in southern Taiwan. The inflorescence is pale yellow and the sterile lemma is wedge-shaped.

蓋氏虎尾草

3. Chloris gayana Kunth, Rev. Gram. 1: 89. 1829 Hsu, Fl. Taiwan 5: 464. 1978; Osada, Ill. Grass. Jap. 524. 1993. 3. Chloris gayana Kunth, Rev. Gram. 1: 89.1829, nomen; 293, pl. 58. 1830; ex Stapf in Dyer, Fl. Cap. 7: 642. 1900; Hitchc., l. c. 524. f. 760. 1951; Senaratna, l. c. 89. 1956; Keng, l. c. 466. f. 398. 1959; Bor, Grass. India 466. f. 51. 1960; Backer & van den Brink, Fl. Java 3: 542. 1968; Hsu in Taiwania 16: 251. 1971, Taiwan Grass. 369. pl. 80. 1975; Gilliland, Grass. Malaya 87. 1971. 蓋氏虎尾草 (Hsu, 1978)Distributed from Senegal eastwards to the Sudan and south to South Africa, in open grasslands and savannahs. This is an introduced species. 'It makes an excellent hay of high nutritive value and is eaten greedily by all stock. Yields are very high in irrigated fields.

虎尾草

(Hsu, 1978)4. Chloris virgata Sw., Fl. Ind. Occ. 1: 203. 1797; Honda, Monogr. Poac. Jap. 157. 1930; Hitchc., l. c. 527. f. 764. 1951; Keng, l. c. 769. 1959; Bor, Grass. India 468. 1960; Backer & van den Brink, Fl. Java 3: 542. 1968; Hsu in Taiwania 16: 251. f. 7. 1971, Taiwan Grass. 371. pl. 81. 1975. 虎尾草 (Hsu, 2000)4. Chloris virgata Sw., Fl. Ind. Occ. 1: 203. 1797; Hsu, Fl. Taiwan 5: 464. 1978; Koyama, Grass. Jap. Neighb. Reg. 279. 1987. (Hsu, 1978)Widely distributed throughout the tropics of both hemispheres. It is reputed to be a good fodder grass.

參考文獻

• Hsu, C. C.(許建昌). 1971. A guide to the Taiwan grasses with keys to the subfamilies, tribes, genera and species. Taiwania 16(2): 199-341. (孟仁草在251頁，虎尾草屬：250~253頁)
• Hsu, Fl. Taiwan 5: 462. 1978 (孟仁草462、台灣虎尾草462、蓋氏虎尾草464、虎尾草464)
• Hsu, Fl. Taiwan ed. 2, 5: 402-405. 2000. (孟仁草403、台灣虎尾草403、蓋氏虎尾草403、虎尾草405)
• 虎尾草屬，FOC Vol. 22 Page 488, 489, 490, 491

形態學

歷史

主條目：植物學歷史/生物學歷史

早期

生物學知識的第一個轉捩點發生在大約一萬年前的新石器時代，人類首次馴化植物，然後蓄養動物，定棲的社會於焉形成。

公元前四世紀，泰奧弗拉斯托斯（约前371年－约前287年）留下二本關於植物的書：《植物史》(Περὶ Φυτῶν Ιστορίας)與《植物之生成》(Περὶ Φυτῶν Αἰτιῶν, On the Causes of Plants) 對中世紀的科學有極深的影響，為首度將植物作系統性分類，成為古代至中世紀最重要的植物學書籍，乃至有人稱呼泰奧弗拉斯托斯為植物學之父。

《植物史》原有十冊，其中存留的有九冊。

The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc. The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums, resins, etc.

On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned.

Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, as a whole they have many valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants. Theophrastus detected the process of germination and realized the importance of climate and soil to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great:

to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the cotton-plant, banyan, pepper, cinnamon, myrrh, and frankincense.

Theophrastus' Enquiry into Plants was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483; in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared. Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library, which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

參考文獻

• Magner, Lois N. A History of the Life Sciences, third edition. Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-8247-0824-5